Journal article
Global burden of lower respiratory infections and aetiologies, 1990–2023: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023
The Lancet infectious diseases, v 26(4), pp 343-361
01 Apr 2026
PMID: 41412141
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Abstract
Lower respiratory infections (LRIs) remain the world's leading infectious cause of death. This analysis from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023 provides global, regional, and national estimates of LRI incidence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), with attribution to 26 pathogens, including 11 newly modelled pathogens, across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2023. With new data and revised modelling techniques, these estimates serve as an update and expansion to GBD 2021. Through these estimates, we also aimed to assess progress towards the 2025 Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (GAPPD) target for pneumonia mortality in children younger than 5 years.
Mortality from LRIs, defined as physician-diagnosed pneumonia or bronchiolitis, was estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model with data from vital registration, verbal autopsy, surveillance, and minimally invasive tissue sampling. The Bayesian meta-regression tool DisMod-MR 2.1 was used to model overall morbidity due to LRIs. DALYs were calculated as the sum of years of life lost (YLLs) and years lived with disability (YLDs) for all locations, years, age groups, and sexes. We modelled pathogen-specific case-fatality ratios (CFRs) for each age group and location using splined binomial regression to create internally consistent estimates of incidence and mortality proportions attributable to viral, fungal, parasitic, and bacterial pathogens. Progress was assessed towards the GAPPD target of less than three deaths from pneumonia per 1000 livebirths, which is roughly equivalent to a mortality rate of less than 60 deaths per 100 000 children younger than 5 years.
In 2023, LRIs were responsible for 2·50 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 2·24–2·81) deaths and 98·7 million (87·7–112) DALYs, with children younger than 5 years and adults aged 70 years and older carrying the highest burden. LRI mortality in children younger than 5 years fell by 33·4% (10·4–47·4) since 2010, with a global mortality rate of 94·8 (75·6–116·4) per 100 000 person-years in 2023. Among adults aged 70 years and older, the burden remained substantial with only marginal declines since 2010. A mortality rate of less than 60 deaths per 100 000 for children younger than 5 years was met by 129 of the 204 modelled countries in 2023. At a super-regional level, sub-Saharan Africa had an aggregate mortality rate in children younger than 5 years (hereafter referred to as under-5 mortality rate) furthest from the GAPPD target. Streptococcus pneumoniae continued to account for the largest number of LRI deaths globally (634 000 [95% UI 565 000–721 000] deaths or 25·3% [24·5–26·1] of all LRI deaths), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (271 000 [243 000–298 000] deaths or 10·9% [10·3–11·3]), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (228 000 [204 000–261 000] deaths or 9·1% [8·8–9·5]). Among pathogens newly modelled in this study, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (responsible for 177 000 [95% UI 155 000–201 000] deaths) and Aspergillus spp (responsible for 67 800 [59 900–75 900] deaths) emerged as important contributors. Altogether, the 11 newly modelled pathogens accounted for approximately 22% of LRI deaths.
This comprehensive analysis underscores both the gains achieved through vaccination and the challenges that remain in controlling the LRI burden globally. Furthermore, it demonstrates persistent disparities in disease burden, with the highest mortality rates concentrated in countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Globally, as well as in these high-burden locations, the under-5 LRI mortality rate remains well above the GAPPD target. Progress towards this target requires equitable access to vaccines and preventive therapies—including newer interventions such as respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibodies—and health systems capable of early diagnosis and treatment. Expanding surveillance of emerging pathogens, strengthening adult immunisation programmes, and combating vaccine hesitancy are also crucial. As the global population ages, the dual challenge of sustaining gains in child survival while addressing the rising vulnerability in older adults will shape future pneumonia control strategies.
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- Title
- Global burden of lower respiratory infections and aetiologies, 1990–2023: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023
- Creators
- Sarah Brooke Sirota - University of WashingtonRose Grace Bender - University of WashingtonRegina-Mae Villanueva Dominguez - University of WashingtonAmanda Movo - University of WashingtonLucien R Swetschinski - University of WashingtonDaniel T Araki - University of WashingtonChieh Han - University of WashingtonEve E Wool - University of WashingtonJiawei He - University of WashingtonAustin Carter - Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USAAhmed A.J. Jabbar - Erbil Polytechnic UniversityMohammad Amin Aalipour - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesHasan Aalruz - Al-Zaytoonah University of JordanZahra Abbasi Dolatabadi - Tehran University of Medical SciencesHedayat Abbastabar - Advanced Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IranSamar Abd ElHafeez - Alexandria UniversityAshraf Nabiel Abdalla - Umm al-Qura UniversityMohammed Altigani Abdalla - University of HullAbdullah - Rawalpindi Medical UniversityEmad M. Abdallah - Qassim UniversityNadin M.I. Abdel Razeq - University of JordanAtef Abdelkader - Ajman UniversitySherief Abd-Elsalam - Tanta UniversitySiddig Ibrahim Abdelwahab - Jazan UniversityMeriem Abdoun - Department of Medicine, University of Setif Algeria, Sétif, AlgeriaArman Abdous - Islamic Azad University, KarajMostafa M. Abdrabou - Cairo UniversityJeza Muhamad Abdul Aziz - Komar University of Science and Technology, Sulaymaniyah, IraqDeldar Morad Abdulah - University of DuhokAuwal Abdullahi - Bayero University KanoToufik Abdul-Rahman - Sumy State UniversityKulmira Abdykerimova - Kazakh National Medical UniversityHabtamu Abebe Getahun - University of GondarArmita Abedi - Zanjan University of Medical SciencesAsrat Agalu Abejew - Bahir Dar UniversitySyed Hani Abidi - Nazarbayev UniversityOlifan Zewdie Abil - Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee, Memphis, TN, USAOlumide Abiodun - Babcock UniversityRichard Gyan Aboagye - Department of Family and Community Health, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, GhanaHassan Abolhassani - Children's Medical CenterUlric Sena Abonie - Northumbria UniversityAbdullahi Tunde Aborode - Mississippi State UniversityNagah M. Abourashed - Benha UniversityDariush Abtahi - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesZhanar Abu - Kazakh National Medical UniversityRana Kamal Abu Farha - Applied Science Private UniversityFuad Hamdi A. Abuadas - Jouf UniversityAminu Kende Abubakar - St. Luke's International UniversityUsman Abubakar - Qatar UniversityNermeen Abu-Elala - Cairo UniversityEman Abu-Gharbieh - University of SharjahAhmad Y Abuhelwa - University of SharjahHana J Abukhadijah - Hamad bin Khalifa UniversityDina Abushanab - Hamad Medical CorporationAnirudh Balakrishna Acharya - University of SharjahKrishna Prasad Acharya - Government of NepalSwetha Acharya - JSS Academy of Higher Education and ResearchMeshack Achore - Hofstra UniversityOusman Adal - Bahir Dar UniversityLisa C Adams - Palo Alto UniversityIsaac Yeboah Addo - UNSW SydneyTajudeen Adesanmi Adebisi - Department of Microbiology, Ladoke Akintola University, Osogbo, NigeriaDavid Adedia - University of Health and Allied SciencesKamoru Ademola Adedokun - Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer CenterNurudeen A Adegoke - The University of SydneyVictor Adekanmbi - College Station Medical CenterOlumide Thomas Adeleke - Bowen UniversityMiracle Ayomikun Adesina - University of IbadanRidwan Olamilekan Adesola - University of MissouriCharles Oluwaseun Adetunji - Edo State University UzairueJuliana Bunmi Adetunji - Osun State UniversityIdowu Peter Adewumi - Olusegun Agagu University of Science and TechnologyMache Tsadik Adhana - Mekelle UniversityRipon Kumar Adhikary - Australian National UniversityAtman Adiba - National Agricultural Research InstituteUsha Adiga - Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences & ResearchMohd Adnan - University of Ha'ilQorinah Estiningtyas Sakilah Adnani - Padjadjaran UniversityGiuseppina Affinito - Federico II University HospitalSaira Afzal - King Edward Medical UniversityGizachew Beykaso Agafari - Wachemo UniversityNavidha Aggarwal - Maharishi Markandeshwar University, MullanaPercival Delali Agordoh - University of Health and Allied SciencesAnurag Agrawal - Ashoka UniversityWilliams Agyemang-Duah - Queen's UniversityMahsa Ahadi - Shiraz University of Medical SciencesBright Opoku Ahinkorah - University of Technology SydneyAdamu Adamu Ahmad - Shaqra UniversityAqeel Ahmad - Shaqra UniversityDanish Ahmad - Australian National UniversityFaisal Ahmad - World Health Organization - PakistanIjaz Ahmad - The University of Agriculture, PeshawarKhurshid Ahmad - Qassim UniversityMuayyad M Ahmad - University of JordanRabbiya Ahmad - Universiti Sains MalaysiaSajjad Ahmad - Abasyn UniversityTauseef Ahmad - School of Public Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, ChinaAli Ahmadi - Shahrekord University of Medical SciencesMahnaz Ahmadi - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesAli Ahmed - Birmingham VA Medical CenterAyman Ahmed - University of KhartoumGasha Salih Ahmed - University of Human DevelopmentHaroon Ahmed - COMSATS University IslamabadMehrunnisha Sharif Ahmed - Rawalpindi Medical UniversityMeqdad Saleh Ahmed - Rawalpindi Medical UniversityMushood Ahmed - Rawalpindi Medical UniversityNaveed Ahmed - University of TabukShahzaib Ahmed - East Carolina UniversitySyed Anees Ahmed - Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USAIbrahim Ahmed El-Imam - Center for International Health, Education and Biosecurity, Center for International Health Education, and Biosecurity, Abuja, NigeriaOluwasefunmi Akeju - University of OxfordRoland Eghoghosoa Akhigbe - Ladoke Akintola University of TechnologyMuhammad Nadeem Akhtar - University of LahoreKarolina Akinosoglou - University of PatrasHammad Akram - Ventria Bioscience (United States)Salah Al Awaidy - Department of Communicable Diseases, Ministry of Health, Muscat, OmanSyed Mahfuz Al Hasan - College Station Medical CenterMohammad Ahmmad Mahmoud Al Zoubi - The University of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonMousa Ali Al-Abbadi - University of JordanMuaaz M Alajlani - Syrian Private UniversityZiyad Al-Aly - Department of Research and Development, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USAKhurshid Alam - Murdoch UniversityMohammad Khursheed Alam - Jouf UniversityFahad Mashhour Alanezi - Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal UniversityTurki M Alanzi - Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal UniversityJude Oluwapelumi Alao - Auckland University of TechnologyAbdullah Alarifi - Saudi Center for Organ TransplantationFahmi Y Al-Ashwal - University of Science and TechnologySeyed Mohammad Amin Alavi - Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical SciencesMohammed Albashtawy - Al al-Bayt UniversityMohammad T AlBataineh - Yarmouk UniversityNader Al-Dewik - Hamad Medical CorporationWafa A Aldhaleei - Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USAShereen M Aleidi - University of JordanFentahun Alemnew - Bahir Dar UniversityAli M Alfalki - University of South CarolinaAbdelazeem M Algammal - Suez Canal UniversityAshraf Alhumaidi - Xi'an Jiaotong UniversityFahad A. Alhumaydhi - Qassim UniversityHaroon Muhammad Ali - University of MalakandKamran Ali - Qatar UniversityLiaqat Ali - National University of Medical SciencesMaratab Ali - Chinese University of Hong KongMohammad Daud Ali - University of Management and TechnologyMohammed Usman Ali - Chinese University of Hong KongRafat Ali - Jamia Millia IslamiaShahid Ali - Hainan UniversitySyed Shujait Ali - Hainan UniversityMontaha Al-Iede - University of JordanSheikh Mohammad Alif - Federation UniversityMina Alimohammadi - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesHamid Alinejad Rokny - UNSW SydneyMorteza Alipour - Department of Physics, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, GermanySamah W Al-Jabi - An-Najah National UniversityMohamad Aljofan - Nazarbayev UniversitySyed Mohamed Aljunid - Universiti Tun Abdul RazakKhaled S. Allemailem - Qassim UniversitySabah Al-Marwani - Independent Consultant, Amman, JordanJoseph Uy Almazan - Nazarbayev UniversityHesham M Al-Mekhlafi - Department of Parasitology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaAmr Almobayed - University of MiamiMohmmad Minwer Alnaeem - Al-Zaytoonah University of JordanWasan Madhat Yousif Alnakshabandie - University of DuhokHasan Yaser Alniss - University of SharjahMahmoud A Alomari - Jordan University of Science and TechnologyJaber S Alqahtani - Prince Sultan Military College of Health SciencesAhmad Rajeh Al-Qudimat - Hamad Medical CorporationRajaa M Al-Raddadi - Department of Community Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi ArabiaIntima Alrimawi - Department of Nursing, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USASahel Majed Alrousan - Ministry of FinanceMohammed A Alsabri - Sana'a UniversityNajim Z. Alshahrani - University of JeddahHamad Alshetaiwi - University of Ha'ilYazed Saleh Alsowaida - University of Ha'ilZaid Altaany - Higher Colleges of TechnologyAwais Altaf - University of LahoreAlaa B Al-Tammemi - Jordan Center for Disease ControlJaffar A Al-Tawfiq - Saudi Aramco Medical Services OrganizationMalik A Althobiani - King Abdulaziz UniversityKhalid A Altirkawi - University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab EmiratesNelson Alvis-Guzman - University of CartagenaNelson J Alvis-Zakzuk - University of the CoastHassan Alwafi - Umm al-Qura UniversityMohammad Al-Wardat - Jordan University of Science and TechnologyYaser Mohammed Al-Worafi - Sana'a UniversityHany Aly - Cleveland ClinicMohammad Sharif Ibrahim Alyahya - Jordan University of Science and TechnologyKarem H Alzoubi - Qatar UniversityAdel S Al-Zubairi - Sana'a UniversityMd. Akib Al-Zubayer - International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease ResearchWalid A Al-Zyoud - German Jordanian UniversityEkiyor Joseph Amafah - University of LondonMasoud Aman Mohammadi - Urmia University of Medical SciencesAbebe Feyissa Amhare - Salale UniversitySaeed Amini - Imam Khomeini HospitalKafayat Aminu - University of IbadanNafiu Aminu - University of BotswanaMajid Aminzare - Zanjan University of Medical SciencesSohrab Amiri - Baqiyatallah University of Medical SciencesAnandhi Deva Amirtharaj - Sultan Qaboos UniversityDickson A Amugsi - African Population and Health Research CenterGaniyu Adeniyi Amusa - University of JosFilippos Anagnostakis - Laboratoire d’Imagerie BiomédicaleEtsay Woldu Anbesu - Samara UniversityRobert Ancuceanu - Carol Davila University of Medicine and PharmacyDeanna Anderlini - The University of QueenslandAbhishek Anil - All India Institute of Medical Sciences BhubaneswarDr. Prapti Anjana - Charotar University of Science and TechnologyAbdul-Azeez Adeyemi Anjorin - Lagos State UniversityKabilan Annadurai - Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences & ResearchBoluwatife Stephen Anuoluwa - University of Medical Sciences, OndoIyadunni Adesola Anuoluwa - Olusegun Agagu University of Science and TechnologySaeid Anvari - Guilan University of Medical SciencesRazique Anwer - Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic UniversityAnayochukwu Edward Anyasodor - Charles Sturt UniversityGeminn Louis Carace Apostol - Department of HealthWalter Appati - Komfo Anokye Teaching HospitalJalal Arabloo - Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IranJesu Arockiaraj - SRM Institute of Science and TechnologyMahwish Arooj - University of LahoreAnton A Artamonov - Institute of Biomedical ProblemsDeepavalli Arumuganainar - Saveetha UniversityNabiy Arystan - Nazarbayev UniversitySyed Mohammed Basheeruddin Asdaq - Alfaisal UniversityMelat Tesfaye Asebot - Johns Hopkins UniversityShewatatek Melaku Asefa - Bahir Dar UniversityMulusew Andualem A Asemahagn - Bahir Dar UniversitySyed Amir Ashraf - University of Ha'ilTahira Ashraf - Pakistan Health Research CouncilMitra Ashrafi - Zanjan University of Medical SciencesMuhammad Shahzad Aslam - School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, MalaysiaYuni Asri - Institut Teknologi Nasional MalangDereje Zewdu Assefa - Monash UniversityBatyrbek Assembekov - Kazakh National Medical UniversityOmer Atac - Istanbul Medipol UniversitySeyyed Shamsadin Athari - Zanjan University of Medical SciencesSachin R Atre - Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth Pune (Deemed to be University), Pune, IndiaJulie Alaere Atta - The University of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonZeenah A Atwan - University of BasrahMatteo Augello - AOL (United States)Avinash Aujayeb - Northumbria Healthcare NHS Foundation TrustKhursheed Aurangzeb - King Saud UniversitySana Javaid Awan - University of LahoreAndargie Abate Awoke - Bahir Dar UniversityBabafela B Awosile - Texas Tech UniversityHabtamu Molla Ayele - Federal Ministry of HealthYusuf Oloruntoyin Ayipo - Universiti Sains MalaysiaSeyed Mohammad Ayyoubzadeh - Tehran University of Medical SciencesAKM Azad - Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic UniversityDavood Azadi - Arak University of Medical SciencesHiva Azami - Hamedan University of Medical SciencesSadat Abdulla Aziz - Cihan University-ErbilAmin Azizan - Tehran University of Medical SciencesAbisola Esther Babatope - Olusegun Agagu University of Science and TechnologyGiridhara Rathnaiah Babu - Qatar UniversityIsrael Tadesse Bacha - Washington University in St. LouisMuhammad Badar - Gomal UniversityAlaa Aboelnour Badran - Damietta UniversityFereshteh Baghizadeh - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesKhlood K Baghlaf - King Abdulaziz UniversityRazieh Bahreini - Pacific University OregonAtif Amin Baig - Management and Science UniversityMohamad Amin Bakhshali - Mashhad University of Medical SciencesSenthilkumar Balakrishnan - Uttarakhand State Council for Science and TechnologyMohammadreza Balooch Hasankhani - Kerman University of Medical SciencesAleksandra Barac - Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, SerbiaManish Barik - Global Development NetworkHiba Jawdat Barqawi - University of SharjahMuhammad Irfan Bashir - Sultan Zainal Abidin UniversityShahid Bashir - University of LahoreAzadeh Bashiri - Shiraz University of Medical SciencesRehana Basri - Jouf UniversityQuique Bassat - Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis AvançatsMohammad-Mahdi Bastan - Tehran University of Medical SciencesAbdul-Monim Batiha - King Khalid UniversityKavita Batra - University of Nevada, Las VegasRavi Batra - University of Nevada, Las VegasMahdis Bayat - Pasteur Institute of IranZemenu Wube Bayleyegn - University of GondarAbdulrahman S Bazaid - University of Ha'ilNeeraj Bedi - D.Y. Patil UniversityNarasimha M Beeraka - Sechenov UniversityPayam Behzadi - Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Qods BranchBekalu Mekonen Belay - Debre Tabor UniversityAsnake Gashaw Belayneh - Bahir Dar UniversityMelesse Belayneh - University of South AfricaSamir Bele - Madurai Kamaraj UniversityUzma Iqbal Belgaumi - Krishna Institute of Medical SciencesMichelle L Bell - University of New HavenMuhammad Bashir Bello - King Abdullah International Medical Research CenterOlorunjuwon Omolaja Bello - Olusegun Agagu University of Science and TechnologyUmar Muhammad Bello - Glasgow Caledonian UniversitySamiun Nazrin Bente Kamal Tune - BRAC UniversityOm Prakash Prakash Bera - Baba Raghav Das Medical CollegeAbiye Assefa Berihun - Johns Hopkins UniversityAmiel Nazer C Bermudez - University of the Philippines ManilaPaulo J G Bettencourt - Universidade Católica PortuguesaAshish Bhargava - Wayne State UniversitySonu Bhaskar - National Cerebral and Cardiovascular CenterPriyadarshini Bhattacharjee - Newcastle UniversityShuvarthi Bhattacharjee - Department of Health & Family WelfareJasvinder Singh Bhatti - Central University of PunjabManpreet Singh Bhatti - Guru Nanak Dev UniversityNaif Kandash Binsaleh - University of Ha'ilEshetie Melese Birru - The Kids Research Institute AustraliaBijit Biswas - All India Institute of Medical Sciences, DeogharMohammad Shahangir Biswas - University of Science and Technology ChittagongAhmad Naoras Bitar - Sultan Zainal Abidin UniversityMolalegne Bitew - Addis Ababa Science and Technology UniversityBruno Bizzozero-Peroni - Universidad de la República de UruguayTrupti Bodhare - All India Institute of Medical SciencesEyob Ketema Bogale - Bahir Dar UniversityArchith Boloor - Manipal Academy of Higher EducationParia Bolourinejad - Isfahan University of Medical SciencesMina Borran - Shahrekord University of Medical SciencesSamuel Adolf Bosoka - University of Health and Allied SciencesAlejandro Botero Carvajal - Universidad Santiago de CaliSouad Bouaoud - University Ferhat Abbas of SetifChristopher Boxe - Howard UniversityNikolay Ivanovich Briko - Department of Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, RussiaLinh Phuong Bui - Center for Creative Initiatives in Health and PopulationFelix Busch - University of CambridgeYasser Bustanji - University of JordanDaniela Calina - University of Medicine and Pharmacy of CraiovaAngelo Capodici - Scuola Superiore Sant'AnnaAndrea Carugno - University of InsubriaFelix Carvalho - Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, Porto, PortugalCarlos A Castañeda-Orjuela - Public Health Department, National University of Colombia, Bogota, ColombiaLuca Cegolon - University of TriesteMuthia Cenderadewi - University of MataramAchille Cernigliaro - Ospedale Sant AntonioMuge Cevik - University of St AndrewsJoshua Chadwick - National Institute of EpidemiologyChiranjib Chakraborty - Adamas UniversitySandip Chakraborty - State Disease Investigation Laboratory, Animal Resources Development Department, Agartala, IndiaVijay Kumar Chattu - Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Semey Medical University (SMU), Semey, KazakhstanLam Duc Chau - The University of Texas Health Science Center at HoustonAnis Ahmad Chaudhary - Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic UniversitySirshendu Chaudhuri - Department of Public Health, Indian Institute of Public Health, Hyderabad, IndiaAkhilanand Chaurasia - King George's Medical UniversityHana Chen - Curtin UniversityHaowei Chen - Clinical Research Center, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, ChinaHui Chen - Science and Technology Department, Northern Jiangsu People's Hospital, Yangzhou, ChinaRucheng Chen - Zhejiang Chinese Medical UniversityXiang Chen - King Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyNicholas WS Chew - Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, SingaporePatrick R Ching - Virginia Commonwealth UniversityMohammod Jobayer Chisti - International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease ResearchWilliam C S Cho - Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, ChinaBryan Chong - Department of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, SingaporeDeepti Chopra - All India Institute of Medical SciencesShivani Chopra - Saveetha UniversityEnayet Karim Chowdhury - Curtin UniversityDevasahayam J Christopher - Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Christian Medical College and Hospital (CMC), Vellore, IndiaDinh-Toi Chu - The Interdisciplinary Research Group on Biomedicine and Health, VNU International School (VNUIS), Hanoi, Viet NamTing-Wu Chuang - Department of Molecular Parasitology and Tropical Diseases, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, TaiwanIsaac Sunday Chukwu - Department of Paediatric Surgery, Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, NigeriaEric Chung - Department of Urology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, AustraliaSunghyun Chung - Department of Health Behavior, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USAMuhammad Chutiyami - University of Technology SydneySara Conti - University of MilanAlexandru Corlateanu - Nicolae Testemițanu State University of Medicine and PharmacyClaudia Cosma - University of FlorenceNatalia Cruz-Martins - University of MinhoAli Dabbagh - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesOmid Dadras - Government of the Northern TerritoryEphrem Mebratu Dagnew - Debre Markos UniversityXiaochen Dai - University of WashingtonAnh Kim Dang - Duy Tan UniversityRoy Arokiam Daniel - Employees' State Insurance Model HospitalPojsakorn Danpanichkul - Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USASamuel E Danso - Ghana Health ServiceSamuel Demissie Darcho - Haramaya UniversityBahar Darouei - Isfahan University of Medical SciencesAso Mohammad Darwesh - Duy Tan UniversityJai K Das - Division of Women and Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, PakistanSaswati Das - Department of Biochemistry, Ministry of Health and Welfare, New Delhi, IndiaDimash Davletov - Kazakh National Medical UniversityWilliam Marciel de Souza - University of KentuckySindhura Deekonda - Department of Pediatrics, Brookdale University Hospital Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, USAMarco Del Riccio - University of FlorenceIvan Delgado-Enciso - School of Medicine, University of Colima, Colima, MexicoDessalegn Demeke - Bahir Dar UniversityTadios Niguss Derese - Research and Training Directorate, Eka Kotebe General Hospital, Addis Ababa, EthiopiaEmina Dervišević - University of SarajevoMuamer Dervišević - COMSATS University IslamabadGirmay Desalegn - University of Maryland School of MedicineVinoth Gnana Chellaiyan Devanbu - Chettinad Academy of Research and EducationDevananda Devegowda - SRISyed Masudur Rahman Dewan - University of DhakaArkadeep Dhali - Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustAmol S Dhane - Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, PuneMandira Lamichhane Dhimal - Research Department, Planetary Health Research Centre, Kathmandu, NepalMeghnath Dhimal - Research Department, Nepal Health Research Council, Kathmandu, NepalBibha Dhungel - Population Interventions Unit, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, AustraliaStefano Di Bella - University of TriesteAntonello Di Paolo - University of PisaMarcello Di Pumpo - Università Cattolica del Sacro CuoreGuodong Ding - Shanghai Jiao Tong UniversityHoa Thi Do - Institute of Health Economics and Technology, Institute of Health Economics and Technology, Hanoi, Viet NamMai Ngoc Do - Vietnam National University, HanoiThao Huynh Phuong Do - Can Tho University of Medicine and PharmacyKlara Georgieva Dokova - Department of Social Medicine and Health Care Organisation, Medical University of Varna, Varna, BulgariaNeda Dolatkhah - Iran University of Medical SciencesFariba Dorostkar - Iran University of Medical SciencesOjas Prakashbhai Doshi - Independent Consultant, Bridgewater, NJ, USAPaulo Magno Martins Dourado - Universidade de São PauloRobert Kokou Dowou - University of Health and Allied SciencesSenbagam Duraisamy - SRM Institute of Science and TechnologyOyewole Christopher Durojaiye - University of SheffieldSiddhartha Dutta - All India Institute of Medical Sciences, RajkotOsamudiamen Ebohon - Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USAMohammad Hossein Ebrahimi - Shahroud University of Medical SciencesAbdelaziz Ed-Dra - Higher School of Technology, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, MoroccoCynthia Edeh - Johns Hopkins UniversityHisham Atan Edinur - Universiti Sains MalaysiaFerry Efendi - Advanced Nursing Department, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, IndonesiaFoolad Eghbali - Iran University of Medical SciencesEbrahim Eini - Private Orthodontist, Ahvaz, IranMichael Ekholuenetale - University of PortsmouthSeraphine Mojoko Eko - University of BueaRabie Adel El Arab - Almoosa College of Health Sciences, Al Ahsa, Saudi ArabiaIman El Sayed - Alexandria UniversityMaysaa El Sayed Zaki - Clinical Pathology Department, Mansoura University, Mansoura, EgyptAhmed Eldaboush - University of PennsylvaniaMarwan El-Deyarbi - United Arab Emirates UniversityMuhammed Elhadi - University of SeoulYasir Ahmed Mohammed Elhadi - United Arab Emirates UniversityMohamed Elhoumed - National Institute of Public Health Research, Ministry of Health, Nouakchott, MauritaniaOmar Abdelsadek Abdou Elmeligy - Alexandria UniversityMohamed A Elmonem - Cairo UniversityMohamed Hassan Elnaem - School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, UKMohammed Elshaer - Mansoura UniversityAbdelgawad Salah Eltahawy - Damanhour UniversitySetegn Eshetie - University of South AustraliaBabak Eshrati - Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, IranGilbert Eshun - Ghana Health ServiceMajid Eslami - Semnan University of Medical SciencesHeidar Fadavian - Tarbiat Modares UniversityAdeniyi Francis Fagbamigbe - University of IbadanIldar Ravisovich Fakhradiyev - Kazakh National Medical UniversityMarkus Fally - University of CopenhagenQiping Fan - Clemson UniversityMohammad Farahmand - Tehran University of Medical SciencesAbdullah Farasani - Jazan UniversityMohammad Fareed - College of Medicine, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi ArabiaAisha Farhana - Jouf UniversitySyed Muhammad Yousaf Farooq - Green International UniversityFolorunso Oludayo Fasina - University of PretoriaModupe Margaret Fasina - Charité - Universitätsmedizin BerlinAli Fatehizadeh - Edith Cowan UniversityZareen Fatima - University of LahoreGinenus Fekadu - City University of Hong KongPietro Ferrara - University of MilanNuno Ferreira - University of NicosiaGetahun Fetensa - Wollega UniversityBikila Regassa Feyisa - Wollega UniversityBelete Sewasew Firew - Bahir Dar UniversityFlorian Fischer - Institute of Public Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, GermanyMarco Fonzo - University of PaduaCelia Fortuna Rodrigues - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, University of Porto, Porto, PortugalOluwaseun Daniel Fowotade - Department of Statistics, Oregon Health and Science University, Corvallis, OR, USAPeter Andras Gaal - Semmelweis UniversityAbdelrahman Gamil Gad - Johns Hopkins UniversitySantosh Gaihre - University of AberdeenMárió Gajdács - University of SzegedBalasubramanian Ganesh - National Institute of EpidemiologyShivaprakash Gangachannaiah - Department of Pharmacology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, IndiaXiang Gao - Brigham and Women's HospitalFernando Jr. Barroga Garcia - University of the Philippines ManilaDavid Garcia-Azorin - Department of Medicine, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, SpainJacopo Garlasco - University of VeronaZisis Gatzioufas - University of BaselRupesh K Gautam - Centre for Pharmacology, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Noida, IndiaTeferi Gebru Gebremeskel - Flinders UniversityGebremariam Wulie Geremew - University of GondarBradford D Gessner - Pfizer Vaccines, Collegeville, PA, USAGenanew K Getahun - Menelik II Medical and Health Science CollegeGebremariam Getaneh - Bahir Dar UniversityKalab Yigermal Gete - Bahir Dar UniversityKeyghobad Ghadiri - Infectious Disease Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, IranKazem Ghaffari - Tehran University of Medical SciencesArin Ghamkhar - Research Committee of Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, IranLobna Gharaibeh - Amman Arab UniversityMoein Ghasemi - Tehran University of Medical SciencesMohammad Amin Ghatee - Shiraz University of Medical SciencesRamy Mohamed Ghazy - Alexandria UniversitySailaja Ghimire - Nepal Health Research CouncilSama Ghoba - University of WashingtonArtyom Urievich Gil - Country Office, World Health Organization (WHO), Astana, KazakhstanSyed Abdullah Gilani - University of NizwaBikash Ranjan Giri - Department of Zoology, KKS Women's College, Balasore, IndiaAlessandro Girombelli - Ospedale SS. AnnunziataLaszlo Göbölös - Cleveland ClinicKimiya Gohari - Tarbiat Modares UniversityPouya Goleij - Department of Genetics, Sana Institute of Higher Education, Sari, IranMelika Golmohammadi - Shahid Beheshti University of Medical SciencesWenping Gong - Senior Department of Tuberculosis, The Eighth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, ChinaYitayal Ayalew Goshu - Debre Tabor UniversityMasoud Noroozi - Drexel University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health SystemsHabtamu Alganeh Guadie - Bahir Dar University
- Publication Details
- The Lancet infectious diseases, v 26(4), pp 343-361
- Publisher
- Elsevier Ltd
- Number of pages
- 19
- Resource Type
- Journal article
- Language
- English
- Academic Unit
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Science, and Health Systems
- Web of Science ID
- WOS:001732492900001
- Scopus ID
- 2-s2.0-105030785689
- Other Identifier
- 991022172971404721